jean piaget - 1284 Words

Jean Piaget Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children. Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a theory of cognitive child development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. Before Piaget’s work,†¦show more content†¦He used the following research methods: Naturalistic observation: Piaget made careful, detailed observations of children. These were mainly his own children and the children of friends. From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development. Clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations. Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal stages of cognitive development. Development is therefore biologically based and changes as the child matures. Cognition therefore develops in all children in the same sequence of stages. Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and no stage can be missed out - although some individuals may never attain the later stages. There are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages. Piaget (1952) believed that these stages are universal - i.e. that the same sequence of development occurs in children all over the world, whatever their culture. Stage of Development Key Feature Research Study Sensorimotor 0 - 2 yrs. Object Permanence Blanket Ball Study Preoperational 2 - 7 yrs. Egocentrism Three Mountains Concrete Operational 7 – 11 yrs. Conservation Conservation of Number Formal Operational 11yrs + Manipulate ideas in head, e.g. Abstract Reasoning Pendulum Task Educational Implications PiagetShow MoreRelatedJean Piaget775 Words   |  4 PagesJean Piaget was a theorist who studied child development; one of the many aspects of early childhood Piaget studied was preoperational thinking. Preoperational thinking usually occurs from ages 2 through 7 according to Piaget. It’s when a child is not able to think logically and perform activities that require logic. In other words, a child is not yet ready at this stage, to reason many situations. Piaget created many experiments that could help educators observe and detect the stages and levelsRead MoreJean Piagets Theory1170 Words   |  5 Pagesthat of Jean Piaget and his theories on the cognitive development stages. Jean Piaget was born in Neuchatel, Switzerland, where he studied at the university and received a doctorate in biology at the age of 22. Following college he became very interested in psychology and began to research and studies of the subject. With his research Piaget created a broad theoretical system for the development of cognitive abilities. His work, in this way, was much like that of Sigmund Freud, but Piaget emphasizedRead More Jean Piaget Essay2046 Words   |  9 PagesJean Piaget Introduction Now known as one of the trailblazers of developmental psychology, Jean Piaget initially worked in a wide range of fields. Early in his career Piaget studied the human biological processes. These processes intrigued Piaget so much that he began to study the realm of human knowledge. From this study he was determined to uncover the secrets of cognitive growth in humans. Jean Piaget’s research on the growth of the human mind eventually lead to the formation of theRead MoreJean Piaget Essay1593 Words   |  7 PagesJean Piaget was a major contributor to the world of psychology and sociology that we know today. His works and discoveries still help sociologist determine and figure out ways people in society interact and develop throughout time. Piaget was born on August 9, 1896 and was raised in Neuchà ¢tel, Switzerland (Boeree n.d.). His family was very influential to his success. His father was a historian that authored many writings on the medieval times, and his mother wa s very intellectual and kind, howeverRead MoreJean Piaget Essay403 Words   |  2 PagesJean Piaget  · He was famous for working out a universal sequence of stages of cognitive development  · Notable for his idea that children (and adults) are continually generating theories about the external world  · He set out stages for when certain new aspects of generating theories; 1. Sensorimotor stage: which occurs from birth to age two (Children experience through their senses) 2. PreoperationalRead MoreJean Piaget And Lawrence Kohlberg892 Words   |  4 PagesAs you aged, did you ever notice that your understanding of right and wrong principles changed? According to psychologists Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg it should have. Individually the two psychologists have made remarkable discoveries on how children develop and use their moral development. Jean Piaget, grew up in Switzerland in the late 1890’s and early 1900’s with his father, who was a dedicated historian. Around Paget’s early twenties he had the privilege of working with many influentialRead MoreJean Piaget And Marie Montessori1124 Words   |  5 Pagesbiography of Jean Piaget and Marie Montessori. In addition to a biography it compares and contrast the two educators. One was more focused on the development of children, while the other specialized in the way children learn. They both were crucial components in the development of how teachers and professors educate their students regardless of their age. There are many people that have made a great impact on education throughout history. Two of the more prominent educators are Jean Piaget and MarieRead MoreEssay on The Theories of Jean Piaget752 Words   |  4 PagesThe Theories of Jean Piaget This essay is about Jean Piagets theory. Piagets theory has two main strands: first, an account of the mechanisms by which cognitive development takes place; and second, an account of the four main stages of cognitive development through which children pass. Piaget suggested that there are four main stages in the cognitive development of children. In the first two years, children pass through a sensory-motor stage during which they progressRead MorePsychology: Jean Piaget Essay1598 Words   |  7 PagesJean Piaget, a cognitivist, believed children progressed through a series of four key stages of cognitive development. These four major stages, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational, are marked by shifts in how people understand the world. Although the stages correspond with an approximate age, Piaget’s stages are flexible in that as long as the child is ready they are able to reach a stage. In kindergarten, many of the stages of both sensorimotor and preoperationalRead MoreJean Piaget And Albert Bandura946 Words   |  4 Pageswould be Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura and how their theories fit into the developmental process. Both are great contributors to the field of psychology due to their theories on cognitive development. There are some similarities and differences between Albert Bandura’s Social learning theori es with Piaget’s cognitive theory in term of ideas and subjects that were used. Jean Piagets was one of the most recognized and influential developmental psychologist in the 20th century. Jean Piaget was born

Sensory Paper Critical Thinking - 1147 Words

Three reasons for believing in the accuracy or inaccuracy of sensory information is perception, interpretation, and knowledge. Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli (Bagley, 2004). Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us, and it also allows us to act within our environment. Interpretation is a communication process, designed to reveal meanings, and relationships of our cultural and natural heritage, through involvement with objects, artifacts, landscapes and†¦show more content†¦When you smell smoke, there is a fire, or at the very least something smoldering, so you can trust the accuracy of that sensory information. The information provided by your sense of sight usually provides accurate inform ation about the world around you. If you see two people talking, there is no doubt about them actually talking. If you see the sun during the day, you know it is not a cloudy day. There are also reasons to believe sensory information can be inaccurate for example you see a girl and guy talking, there is no doubt that they are talking, but if you are insecure in your relationship and the boy happens to be your boyfriend, you might jump to wrong conclusions. Though our sensory organs may be working fine, environmental influences may distort our interpretation of the data the organ is sending to us. For example, we could look down a street and not see anyone and think it is safe to walk down that street, but someone could be behind a tree or other object. We do not always interpret sensory data correctly no matter what sensory organ we are using. That is the most important reason we should be aware that we may not always rely on sensory information. Our senses are who we are, without them we are left to isolation and our ability to think and learn due to lack of experience. Senses are our connection from the physical world into the realm of our mind. â€Å"There is nothing in the mind unless it is first in the senses† (Kirby Show MoreRelatedAutism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd )1444 Words   |  6 Pages(PDD-NOS) are now disabilities that fall into the spectrum that is ASD. Diagnosis of Autism can be determined at age 2 with high reliability, but is not often discovered until the individual reaches school age and begins to fall behind their peers. It is critical that a parent goes and gets their child screened for developmental disabilities at the doctor at least every 9 months during their few first years of life, so that if they do have a disability early intervention strategies can be employed. ASD occursRead MoreA Personal Assessment Of Dasani, The Invisible Child Essay1185 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction This paper will be the second personal assessment of Dasani, the invisible child, through four different theories. These theories include Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development, Stimulation Theories, Control Theories and the Practice Orientation versus Culture of Poverty. Each theory will be broken down into it’s own section of synopsis and then assessment of Dasani to give a better understanding of her spiritual and cultural dimensions and her physical environment. Fowler’sRead More`` Architecture And The Crisis Of Modern Science ``1637 Words   |  7 PagesAlberto Perez Gomez, Peter Zumthor, and Steven Holl emphasize on the phenomenology in their design processes. Their compositions and beliefs are evidences of the power of phenomenon. In addition, they argue that the sensory experience between the architectural object and the audience of it should be complimentary. These designers are famous for reviving the emotion evoking spaces through expression of light and shadow, material, and intimate human perception. The manifestation of this theory willRead MoreReview Of Go Phhonulum Review1125 Words   |  5 Pageswhat said the long A. The student will reply A then consonant, then the e. Or they may reply AI like in stain. Or the student will say ay like in the word say. I like how the book said that if the student said that vowel is o, but the teacher is thinking long A. Then the teacher should say no not this time and help the student c onstruct a different choice. If the student answer remains the same then the student should be taught or reminded the rules for the word. For the section teaching phonogramRead MoreNeuro Linguistic Programming1623 Words   |  7 PagesHistory of Neuro Linguistic Programming Abstract This paper covers the history and development of Neuro Linguistic Programming in the field of psychology covering its techniques and its growth from behavioral modeling and the influences of Gestalt psychologists Fritz Perls; Virginia Satir, and Milton Erikson. Richard Bandler and John Grinder are considered the fathers of Neuro Linguistic Programming and this paper covers the skills they developed and their discovery of the ways to identifyRead MoreOccupational Therapy And Speech Therapy Essay996 Words   |  4 Pagessemester the knowledge that I’ve gained, has advanced my level of critical thinking and awareness of several mental disorders. Each day delivered a level of goals and improvements. Each child that attended this outpatient clinic expressed how valuable and unique they truly are. The individualization was one of the best mechanisms that was transpired on a daily basis. Each day was a new experience to observe communication skills, sensory integration, and fine mot or skills. During this semester the determinationRead MoreEngaging The Adult Learner For Adult Learners1028 Words   |  5 Pagespreferred over another to achieve learning by the participant and educator. Thus, applying a collection of teaching styles and techniques that address particular preferences should be employed. The teaching styles may be delivered to stimulate the sensory, auditory, and visual or in combination. Implementation of the teaching style chosen should be successful to support learning for all the participants. Additionally, not only does this type of instructional approach assist with engagement, but itRead MoreCognitive Load Theory Intersects With Human Cognitive Architecture1741 Words   |  7 Pagesto skilled due to the creation of an increasing number of complex schemas (Neubrand et al., 2016; Cockburn et al., 2015; Blissett et al., 2012). These complex schemas are the result of lower and higher level schemas combined to present the most critical associations between elements within schemas. When learning occurs over an extended period of time, a schema may include a large amount of automated information (Blissett et al., 2012). Sweller, Ayres, and Kalyuga ( 2011) identified the combinationRead MoreAnalyzes And Conversion Of Carbon Dioxide Abundance Data Analysis899 Words   |  4 Pagessurface constantly absorb and produce carbon dioxide. Over the years the abundance of carbon dioxide has increased. By critically analyzing 2D data on carbon dioxide a pattern was recognized and converting it into a 3D model required the use of critical thinking tools. The 2D data above demonstrates carbon dioxide abundance in parts per million between the years 1975 and 2015. Analyzing the data between intervals of fifteen years highlights an increasing pattern of carbon dioxide abundance. TheRead MoreThe Impact Of Teachers, School Social Workers And On An Infant And Toddler Biological Psychological, And Social Emotional Domain1276 Words   |  6 Pagesto gain language and literary, and cultivate an environment that allows self-confidence, respect for others, and belongingness (Shulman, 1992). Introduction From early on, infants depend on others for basic physical and emotional needs. In this paper I will use newborn, child, and children interchangeably to refer to infants and toddlers. During the prenatal to early childhood interactions healthy factors like nutrition, family affection, and environmental safety influence the way the brain develops

Commercial Bank Law

Question: Discuss about theCommercial Bank Law. Answer: In accordance to the facts for the provided case Commercial Bank of Australia Ltd v Amadio [1983] HCA 14; (1983) CLR 447 (12 May 1983) it can be noticed that there were primarily three causes of action i.e. legal issues that was emphasized upon by Mr. and Mrs. Amadio in the process of challenging the mortgage guarantee signed by them in the High Court of Australia. The three major claims or causes of actions during the proceeding of the case were: unconscionable bargain, the process of transaction included undue influence and the presence of suppression of facts or misrepresentation. Following the examination of the facts the conclusion drawn by appeal court had vast impact on the trial judges decision, which was reversed. The appeal was upheld in the court. The appeal court ordered to set aside the mortgage (Australiancontractlaw, 2013). It was further held by the court that it was the obligation of the bank to disclose the companys accounts actual position. It was further stated by the court that in regards to Vincenzos misrepresentations the bank was liable. The appeal court held that the nature of transaction was that of an unconscionable one which required equity in order to provide relief. According to the judgment given by Justice Gibbs, in a contract of guarantee where one party is obliged to disclose entire facts to the other party, in such a case it is not of utmost good faith. It is mentionable here that the judgment further stated that on the part of the bank that takes a guarantee is only bound to reveal the facts that has occurred between the principal debtor and the bank , to the intending surety that was not expected to have occurred naturally. Hence the requirement for the revealing goes to the extent in cases where some unusual features in the in the specific case associated with the specific account that is supposed to be guaranteed is required. On the basis of this aspect, in the judgment it was concluded that failure on the part of the bank resulted in misrepresentation. In the context of the provided facts of the case, it can be noticed that major financial difficulties were being faced by Vincenzos company was a major dimension of the resulted in persuading Justice Gibbs in coming to the conclusion that disclosure should have been made by the bank (austlii, 2015). Another fact of the case, i.e. the arrangement between Vincenzo Amadio and the bank on companys behalf on 24th March which also contributed to persuading Justice Gibbs that disclosure should have been made by the bank. The occurrence of misrepresentation and non-liability or no binding of the respondents are the legal issues identified by Justice Gibbs that largely influenced the decision or verdict of this case (Misrepresentation act, 2001). The ratio for the decision was on favor of Mr. and Mrs. Amadio. Reasonably the case was not decided on legal grounds but the approach observed from the scenario shows that they were innocent and they needed justice reasonably. Contract of guarantee was made after the decision taken by Justice Gibbs. Revealing requirement is mentioned in extent (Vout, 2006). Vincenzo is a principal debtor and his parents are guarantor, so misrepresentation is found from the part of the bank and judgment stands against the bank and Vicenzo, as Mr. Mrs. Amadio came in financial loss because of the issue raised in the scenario and as enforceability of guarantee was charged by them, so the court took decision against Vicenzo. Inequality of bargaining power was decided by Justice Mason, where law of equity can be stated where equality may not be same for all the laws and power. Unfair terms in the legal rule is not supposed to be accepted by Mr. and Mrs. Amadio, as they are the strong party and intervention of contract with restore equity taken place on favor of the innocent party as per courts judgment (Australiancontractlaw.com, 2016). Firstly the bargain was ordinary and evidence was not found; secondly misrepresentation was done by Vicenzo not the bank; thirdly on the ground of equity Mr. and Mrs. Amadio felt relief because of the proper justice. For achieving fairness both Undue influence and Unconscionable conduct is described. It is said that weaker party is influenced to enter to an agreement in Undue influence and that result in coercion which is result of presumption. Positive trust in a relation is needed to be shown in undue influence. Whereas, in Unconscionable dealing exploitation of power with conduct of the party resume but because of negligence the court declare the case unconscionable conduct. Transaction takes place under unconscionable conduct (Assets for Care, 2012). Justice Deane took comprehensive decision by stating the facts with conclusion that the bank was guilty of unconscionable conduct and it was ordered that procurement of mortgage should be guaranteed by the respondents which they had not provided still the case is against the bank and Vicenzo is equally involved in this case with no remedy (Assets for Care, 2012). In this case similarity is found that the ratio is always in favor of Mr. and Mrs. Amadio and it was found that all the judges took same decision on favor of both of them. The claims prove that, it was unconscionable conduct which is procured by undue influence and misrepresentation is fact of concealment in this case. In the trial justice Amados entitled relief. The liability of the bank was limited. It was 50,000 which needed to be recovered in six months and mortgage and the guarantee was found unclear. The proceeding amount for general test was $239,830.85. The courts appeal was dismissed and it was a pure misrepresentation case with non disclosure relation which was described by the court on basis of trial judgment on the favor move Mr. and Mrs. Amadio. References Assets for Care. (2012). Undue influence unconscionable dealing. [online] Available at: https://assetsforcare.seniorsrights.org.au/relationship-breaks-down/equity/undue-influence-unconscionable-dealing/ [Accessed 18 Sep. 2016]. austlii.edu.au. (2015).High Court of Australia. [online] Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/sinodisp/au/cases/cth/HCA/1983/14.html?stem=0synonyms=0query=title%20(%20%22amadio%22%20) [Accessed 17 Sep. 2016]. Australiancontractlaw.com. (2013).Australian Contract Law | Julie Clarke. [online] Available at: https://www.australiancontractlaw.com/cases/amadio.html [Accessed 17 Sep. 2016]. Australiancontractlaw.com. (2016). Australian Contract Law | Julie Clarke. [online] Available at: https://www.australiancontractlaw.com/cases/amadio.html [Accessed 18 Sep. 2016]. Misrepresentation act, 2001. (1976). Woolman. Vout, P. (2006).Unconscionable conduct. Pyrmont, N.S.W.: Lawbook Co.

Khrushchev was the most successful leader of Russia Essay Example

Khrushchev was the most successful leader of Russia Paper Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev was and remains Russia’s most conscientious leader, who correctly identified problems within Russia and the first to initiate fundamental change, which would bring about sustained prosperity and stability within all aspects of Russia. In order to implement this, Khrushchev had either rejected previous policies for their failure or weaknesses to adequately work, in order to replace them with ones more functional at grassroots level, or to first produce policies that would allow initial growth to occur. It is these policies which have remained fundamental to Russia; though later leaders may have furthered or readjusted them, their initial purpose remained at the core of many later policies. Reforms were intended to produce an improvement in all elements of Russia’s state functioning collectively; with the intension of such policies providing the groundwork for their further development by later leaders and this is precisely what is noticed in succeeding offices, which saw an elaboration of certain elements of Khrushchev’s initial policies. It is these initial policies which laid the basis for further reform, which allow me to deem Khrushchev the most successful leader; as it was reformations implemented on his behalf, which provided the framework for further sustained successful development. An example of Khrushchev’s rejection of previous policies to function sufficiently and replace them with adequate ones, is the 20th party conference in 1956. Khrushchev spoke of a â€Å"new political thinking†, in which he made visible, that previous attempts to successfully implement â€Å"socialism† were ineffective. We will write a custom essay sample on Khrushchev was the most successful leader of Russia specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Khrushchev was the most successful leader of Russia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Khrushchev was the most successful leader of Russia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer If Russia was to transgress from its current position economic, political and social instability it had to part with former ways in order to accomplish this. Khrushchev acknowledged that transgression to economic and social prosperity had to come at a price. Khrushchev largely knew that the Russian political spectrum had been manufactured and dictated by the sole decisions-making of one individual: Stalin. As A. J. P. Taylor writes: â€Å"Stalin alone made every great decision [2] Russia’s stagnation was confound, to the political momentum in which Stalin was the sole instigator. The concept of Stalinisation was one in which all elements of Russian diplomatic and civil expression where entranced in absolute totalitarian control by one man. Transgression in any direction was indentured, by that individuals own perception of development – be it even if it was or wasn’t justifiable or applicable; as-long as they deemed it just. As Khrushchev stated at the 20th party conference: â€Å"Stalin acted not through persuasion nd cooperation with people, but by demanding absolute submission to his opinion. †[3] It is therefore to no surprise, that the implementation of de-Stalinisation was pivotal in permitting development in Russia. De-Stalinisation was a political tool which permitted the political domain of Russia to freely express new political initiatives, without being restricted by fear of opposing the totalitarian regime. The infrastructure was not reformed by this process, rather re-opened: it was now liable to change. It is this fundamental principle which became immensely pivotal for the development of Russia. De-Stalinisation fragmented previous policies which were deem unbeneficial, so their reconstruction for a more prosperous one in which sustained abrupt industrial, agricultural, civil and diplomatic advances where sufficiently developed and maintained- could be achieved. The rejection of previous failings is an intellectual concept pioneered by Khrushchev and adopted by every successor of his; for its practical advantages. It allowed the person in power to reform certain elements of the state; by initially focusing of on the weaknesses of the current system, than providing an alternative structure, which was in direct comparison to the sole failures of the previous one, obviously superior though whether or not these advantages where correctly comprehended by such individuals, is a different matter all together. [4] The â€Å"thaw† was the first attempt by a communist leader, to alleviate tensions between ideological and social demands, with John Keen claims: â€Å"His [Khrushchev’s] greatest accomplishment was to end the reign of fear [5] Such policies are testimony of Khrushchev’s implementation of combating Long-term problems confronting Russia, as Khrushchev claimed: â€Å"we must help people to live well. You cannot put theory into your soup or Marxism into your clothes. †[6] The â€Å"thaw† was a reformation of the ideological constraints, that communism had previously put on the Russian people. Previous rule restricted the development of civil reform: working conditions and general civil liberty remained severely undeveloped. The constant shrift between restricted and relaxed censorship was a long-term problem persistent throughout Russian history. Previous attempts of totalitarian rule had proved to be of little benefit to the state; in certain instances it furthered dissidents towards the government by the populace. As repression of censorship was bound to frustrate the Russian people, who were continuously placed in direct comparison with the west, yet in reality societal functioning differed greatly between the two: especially in terms of freedoms. What we see here, is Khrushchev’s realisation that reformation of any aspect of Russia, goes hand-in-hand with each other. It is of little significance if industrial reforms take place for economic growth, if social reforms which accommodate those who take on such policies are poor: one is bound to affect the other, as they are not of equal standards. Such tactics are similar to that of Witte and Stolypin; who both saw economic growth accompanied by social reform. We see here Khrushchev being the first (within communism), to create the basis for civil reformation; in order for it to accompany other reforms, which go hand-in-hand with overall prosperity. Therefore Vladimir Putin, who indicates a return to authoritarian rule, whereby media production is censored and suppression of regional provinces (such as Dagestan and Chechnya’s) right to self-governing bodies, may indicate a leadership were comprehension of the consequences of totalitarian rule verses increased civil liberty, are not correctly identified. As Sakwa states, Putin’s Russian society is characteristic of a centralised â€Å"Soviet-style bureaucracy†: similar to Stalin. [7] However, a conclusion on Putin’s office is not comprehensive, as his government remains; still reforming elements of society. The â€Å"thaw† is a clear demonstration of the importance of state prosperity (economic growth), being interlinked with general reforms. The sole expansion of one aspect of the state (e. g. the economy), cannot adequately develop, as the overall environment of the state would still be lacking behind. These general reforms can be seen as the long-term problems of Russia: agricultural and social reforms. The major mistake of leaders is to solely focus on the economic aspect of Russia, while ignoring the possible social elements; consequently drifting attention away from the ameliorated conditions of one aspect, to poorer ones. This is precisely what Khrushchev – along with Witte and Stolypin – emphasised; if all aspects of Russia are not reformed equally, disdain for a condition which is improved, is displaced onto another condition that is less developed: consequently leading to possible anarchy. These persistent long-term problems had to be assessed equally with other pivotal reforms, in order for the state to progress; this is apparent in the rule of Nicholas II. Industrial growth was prioritised, with industrial output increasing from 810 in 1908, to 1165 in 1913; showing signs of stability. [8] Yet what remained prominent, was the fundamental issue of poor social conditions. [9] Consequently leading to upheaval and opposition: such as the Lena Goldfields Massacre (1912) and Bloody Sunday (1905). These were all expressions of discontent with the conditions at hand. [10] These matters were further ignored, to point were upheaval against poor conditions was common place in 1917; which saw the Petrograd protest leading to a string of events, that brought about the collapse of the Tsar. [11] Khrushchev’s point is further empathised here; possibly the Tsarist regime would have been better equipped, if it had improved such persisting issues equally: continuity of industrial, agriculture and social development. Historians Koenker and Von Laue concur with this view, claiming that Nicholas’ incompetence in meeting social and industrial demands, further intensified the already fragile situation. [12] If long-term matters were equally addressed, possibly the collapse of the tsarist regime could have been prevented. The tenure of Khrushchev saw the greatest attempt at reforming the economic system, into one which would pose the most benefit: such are the policies of democratisation and decentralisation. [13] Such policies were compelled by mid-1957. Between 1954-55 approximately 11,000 enterprises moved from central to independent control, May 1955 major planning and financial decisions were removed from state Moscow control, to republican hold: Russia had become decentralised. [14] Proportions of industry were also subject to the effects of decentralisation; with Moscow-based ministries replaced with sovnarkhozy: independent organisations, free to regulate industrial activity within their provenance. In turn, greater autonomy was given to the industrial spectrum. The purposes of these policies were not to transform the economic structure into a western one, but rather allow beneficial advancements to be made. Prior to Khrushchev, the economic system created by Stalin, meant that the majority of state revenue was derived from the exportation of grain and with state farms operating at a loss, an alternative was â€Å"necessary. †[15] Yet the economic system was so entrenched in collectivisation, that no other alternative was deemed possible. Decentralisation and democratisation were proposed alternatives by Khrushchev. These policies provided Russia with the basis for possible further economic reform: it initially reopened the economic system, by making it more flexibly in areas of production and management. The fact that Khrushchev’s relatively short tenure did not permit sustained development of the vast amount of his policies, may indicate why these policies did not produce substantial industrial growth initially. Rather if time was permitted, these policies could have been further developed and produced possible growth. Thus if Brezhnev’s tenure had experienced prosperity at the beginning of his office, it may be due to an elaboration of Khrushchev’s policies; with later stagnation resulting from a reversal of these policies. Statistics show an initial increase in production: such as iron output increasing by 56 percent during 1965-75 and then decreasing to less than 7 percent from 1975-85. [16] Furthered by Brezhnev’s later crippled economic output, prior industrial growth stagnated in 1970-80, falling to less than 2. 6 percent. Similarly the Soviet Union’s GNP had fallen from 5. 2 percent in 1970, to 2. percent in 1980. [17] It appears that the effects of decentralisation were beneficial and a reversal of such policies would therefore counter-track production: which is seen under the centralised economy of Brezhnev. [18] The fact that Khrushchev’s policies were contributing to industrial growth, was an indicator of its successfulness. Therefore what was the necessity of their reversal? Thereby allowing us to stratify Brezhnev’s tenure into two categories: continuity of success due to the Khrushchev era and poor economic leadership by Brezhnev; causing further economic stagnation. Likewise, Stalin’s Collectivisation process had failed to produce an economic structure of continuity, with state farms operating at a loss, since procurement prices which were set by the state, had hardly been increased since 1928. [19] Stalin was indeed conscious of this, stating to the party that they had become â€Å"dizzy with success†; however no economic alternative was proposed. [20] If centralisation proved economically ineffective, why were decision not taken to alter the cause of direction – similar to Khrushchev? Perhaps these are largely signs of a poor economic leadership, on behalf of Brezhnev and Stalin. Gorbachev’s office shows that Khrushchev’s policies were later adopted and furthered by his successors. Though these policies were not initially adopted, when Gorbachev acknowledged that the state was in a point of crisis, these policies were then re-implemented. This initial misconception, is seen in Gorbachev’s foremost policies, which akin to the predecessors of Khrushchev, perceived stability solely through economic expansion; as he stated in the Central Committee meeting: economic growth was â€Å"the key to all our problems [21] Though unaware that economic growth demanded general reformation, expected growth bore no noticeable gain and thus lead Gorbachev to recognise the necessity of Khrushchev’s earlier policies; that general reform accompanied economic expansion. Therefore the later office of Gorbachev saw a continuity and elaboration of Khrushchev’s primary policies. He re- engaged in the process of denunciation, stating at the 27th Party Congress: â€Å"readjustment of the economic mechanisms begins with a rejection Peaceful co-existence was revisited; seen in the agreement with the US, to destroy intermediate-range nuclear weapons and the approval of the dismantling of the Berlin wall. Moreover, the civil and economic reforms of glasnost and perestroika, were but a build up of Khrushchev’s initial policies of reforming communism and decentralisation. Though McCauley argues Gorbachev’s reforms were pivotal to the creation of a civil state, the question is whether these policies would have been perused, if Khrushchev would have not laid the framework for their development? Likewise to Gorbachev’s initial perspective, Yeltsin perceived stability to be through economic might. [22] Yeltsin provided state initiatives (vouchers), with the purpose of creating a new entrepreneurial class (oligarchs), which would increase privately owned corporations; in turn pose similar benefits as Kulaks. Such a class would evolve into the dominant force to allow the economic structure of Russia to transform to one similar to western lines; as Yeltsin stated: the vouchers were â€Å"a short ticket to the free market. The oligarchs creation, meant the majority of the state’s economic resources were tied within the oligarchs; yet they redirected their own resources in international investments, rather than Russia’s. The result was a misjudgement of the oligarchs function, as they produce no abrupt economic growth as hoped. Rather they stimulated the growth of a corrupt black market. Though these policies were unsuccessful, the fact remains that the previ ous failing economic structure was redeveloped to the point, were transgression to a new system which could be further developed, was conceivable. An identical question to Gorbachev is posed: would any change have been permitted, if Khrushchev did not lay the foundation for their development, as they were continuations of Khrushchev’s decentralisation policies? T. A. Morris and Alan Wood, hold a conventional view that soviet agricultural growth was the consequence of Stalin, though such a perceptive can be challenged [23] Khrushchev’s initial policies of â€Å"Thaw† fragmented the Russian infrastructure, thus allowing reformation to take form: in this context, agriculture. During the near end of the Stalinist era, collective farms were operating at a substantial loss; agricultural functioning was in need of redevelopment. [24] Khrushchev’s methods of agricultural melioration were not merely intended for economic gain; they posed the first signs of agricultural and social advances. Taxes and compulsory state quotas was reduced, private plot was reintroduced, wages amounted, surplus labour was rewarded not demanded and Stalin’s practically insufficient â€Å"collective farms†, were lessened of their power. 25] Such policies were furthered by the 1954 Virgin Lands Scheme: its primary concern being the pre-occupation of uncultivated lands within the state. [26] Between 1954-60, 41. 8million hectares of â€Å"virgin land† had been ploughed. [27] Agricultural production was officially augmented by 3 per cent in 1954, with state procurement of grain rising by 50 per cent annually during 1954-63: predominantly from the virgin lands scheme. 28] The significance is thus, agricultural production may not have experienced a boom like that of Stalin’s, yet for the first time in soviet history, it did not stagnate nor fluctuate: it stabilised throughout the whole of Khrushchev’s tenure – largely unparalleled with pervious or later leaders Stalin had told party delegates of â€Å"a new policy of eliminating the Kulaks † as they were perceived to be the reason for Russia’s agricultural Laxness. [29] It is these actions, which form the basis for Khrushchev’s argument in the de-Stalinisation speech. Were the Kulaks not of economical benefit, during and before the tenure of Stalin? The primary creation of the Kulaks by Stolypin, was for economic growth. [30] Khrushchev’s criticism was not on the idea of producing grain on a grand scale to export for an economic capital, in turn redirecting the capital to industrial expansion, rather the way it was implemented. Was it utterly â€Å"necessary†, to liquidate the most prosperous and agriculturally beneficial class in Russia? Where there no other alternatives, which would show the same output as collectivisation and yet keep this class? The Virgin Lands Scheme was the alternative solution pioneered by Khrushchev, yet the alternative agricultural strategy was always available. Collectivisation under Stalin, involved the mass consolidation of grain; under state control. In order to hasten the rate of state grain procurement, forceful measures had to be implemented; involving the genocide of Russia’s most prized agricultural labourers: Kulaks. The Virgin Lands Scheme removed the need for state interference in order to raise state grain procurement. The necessity of collectivisation is once again questioned, with Getty viewing it as a necessity and those such as Perry, believing it to be â€Å"a tragedy for Russia †[32] Khrushchev was once again at the forefront of deconstructing inadequate policies, in order to replace them with ones more beneficial; thereby allowing these newer policies to be of greater economic advantage, as they remove the weaknesses of previous policies (i. e. annihilation of the Kulaks). If Stalin’s own direct predecessor acknowledged such a scheme prior to taking the post of general secretary, why didn’t Stalin? Its benefits are evident: grain production would have increased and without the removal of the Kulaks, it could have further stimulated production. This could rather be a sign of not only Stalin’s but all Russian leaders’ ignorance, of Russia’s own economic and agricultural potential. Does not the fact that Khrushchev clearly realised this, indicate his superior economic strategising and leadership? The creations of Khrushchev’s policies of Detente and Peaceful co-existence, steamed from Khrushchev’s tenure into that of every succeeding leader: for the sheer benefits which these policies brought. Prior to Khrushchev, poor foreign relations between Russia, the west and America, confound Russia in continuous international conflicts; bringing a halt to economic and social development of the state. We only have to examine the predecessors of Khrushchev to understand this. Within the tenure of Lenin, social stability was prevented, as the state remained in constant battle with international forces, consequently bring about civil war. Moreover, John Griggs states, Lenin’s government never saw effective attempts at ameliorating the state’s improvised economic situation. The fact remains, that involvement in war prohibited development. A state in international conflict had to redirect its resources, from industrial expansion and/or social development, to defence departments; Stalin’s tenure is testimony to this. Though at the beginning priority was given to economic matters, during the later part (1939 onwards), all economic resources were redirected into military expansion and development, in preparation for war. Furthermore, tensions between the USSR and other western democratises during the office of Stalin, became so ripe it lead to the greater development of the Cold War. As Churchill claimed: â€Å"an iron curtain† was drawn between the USSR and the rest of the world. 33] It’s the removal of this â€Å"iron curtain† which remained fundamental to Khrushchev’s foreign policies: constant poor international relations had prohibited positive development in the USSR and if such relations continued, the Cold War itself would evolve into one that would bring the same demise as previous wars. Khrushchev installed Detente and peaceful co-existence, because of its necessity; Russia could not continue nor economically afford perpetual involvement in War. Thus leading to relations with America, Europe and even China, being reaffirmed rather in the case of China, begin development on a positive note. Consequently In 1963, after a bad harvest, grain was imported from America – later becoming a regular occurrence and feature of the improved Soviet-US relationship. [35] However, this is not to say that the Soviet Union was not subject to international tensions: like the Cuban missile crisis of 1962. [36] It can be argued that the Crisis was a contradiction of Khrushchev’s policies of Peaceful co-existence, as is posed the possible outbreak of nuclear war and an increase in international tensions. However, attention should be drawn to the outcome of the matter. After an initial warning by President Kennedy, Khrushchev agreed on the removal of nuclear missiles within Cuba and a S. A. L. T. [37] What is seen here is a pursuit for international peace, rather than an expansion on nuclear defences; which would prevent a similar occurrence in the future. Khrushchev’s development of positive foreign policies – or rather his approach as a peace maker are what gave Russia the framework to remain a superpower and allow development to occur; as if these policies were not initiated, the USSR would have seen a continuity in war which would have brought her to her knee’s sooner, rather than later. What does not allow us to solely focus on the tenure of Khrushchev to draw a comprehensive conclusion, is the relatively short period he remained in office. What remains problematic is the fact that policies which Khrushchev had implemented, were merely initiated in his tenure and developed in the that of others, and those that remained underdeveloped (such as the Virgin Lands Scheme), is the consequence of the lack of time, which Khrushchev had to firmly implement them. Moreover, Khrushchev’s policies did not cease at the end of his tenure, but were further developed in that of his successors. Examination of later economic, diplomatic and civil reformations by latter leaders, shows evidence of Khrushchev policies being further developed, not abandoned, in order to bring about change or maintenance of an aspect of Russia. Nowhere is this more evident, than in the tenure of Gorbachev; which saw an utter elaboration of Khrushchev’s economic and civil policies. I believe the continuity of the vast amount of Khrushchev’s policies into the office of later leaders, as self acclaimed success: they were adopted by leaders not because there was no alternative, rather because they were necessary policies. Therefore the one who first initiated these policies (Khrushchev), allows me to deem them, the most successful leader during 1905 -2005.